Acronym Definition
PJOE Joe's Own Editor (small, fast alternative to VI for Linux)
PJOE Joint Operational Environment
PJOE Journal of Endodontics
Joe is a diminutive form of the name "Joseph" (male) and sometimes "Josephine"
(female).
Joe may refer to:
People:
* Joe (singer), Joe Lewis Thomas, an American R&B singer and record producer
* Joe C. (1974-2000), an American rap artist
* Joseph Stalin, Soviet dictator, nicknamed "Uncle Joe" by the Western media
* Samoa Joe, ring name of Nuufolau Joel Seanoa, an American professional
wrestler
* Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Thai filmmaker, nicknamed "Joe"
* Joe DiMaggio, American baseball player
Arts and Entertainment:
* G.I. Joe, a classic action figure toy made by Hasbro
* Joe (film), 1970 film starring Peter Boyle
* Joe Swanson, Peter Griffin's handicapped neighbor on Family Guy
* Average Joe (show), American reality TV dating series
* Joe 90, a 1968 British television series
* "Joe", a song by Red Hot Chili Peppers on their album Stadium Arcadium
* Joe "The mechanical wizard", a character in the video game Blazing Angels
Generic usage:
* Average Joe, used in the United States to refer to the average American
* Joe Shmoe, fictional American name for a typical person with no special status
* Joe Sixpack and "Joe Blow" are generic names used to denote the hypothetical
"common man"
* Joe Cool, nickname given primarily to those who display a calm or placid
attitude
* Joe Bloggs, commonly used placeholder name in the United Kingdom
* Joe's Diner (Fictional Restaurant), fictional name for a hypothetical small,
local restaurant
Soviet weapon testing:
* Joe 1, American codename for the first Soviet nuclear weapon test (1949)
* Joe 4, American codename for the first Soviet test of a thermonuclear weapon
(1953)
Other uses:
* Cup of joe, nickname for coffee
* Joe FM, a brand for several radio stations in North America
* Joe's Own Editor, a text editor for Unix systems
Joe is a common diminutive form of the given name "Joseph".
In politics
* Joe Clark, the 16th Prime Minister of Canada
* Joe Biden, Democratic U.S. Senator from Delaware
In sports
* Joe Castiglione, a broadcaster for the Boston Red Sox.
* Joe Cole, a footballer for Chelsea of the English Premier League
* Joe Cronin, Baseball Hall of Fame outfielder for various teams
* Joe DiMaggio, Baseball Hall of Fame outfielder for the New York Yankees
* Joe Fascione, Scottish former footballer
* Joe Kelly (Formula One), famous Formula One driver from Dublin, Ireland
* Joe Montana, a quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers and the Kansas City
Chiefs of the NFL
* Joe Namath, a quarterback for the New York Jets
* Joe Nemechek, a NASCAR Nextel Cup Series driver and owner of NEMCO Motorsports
* Joe Paterno, head coach of Pennsylvania State University's college football
team
* Joe Sakic, center for the Colorado Avalanche of the NHL
* Joe Smith (baseball player) is a Major League Pitcher for the New York Mets
* Joe Thomas, offensive tackle for the Wisconsin Badgers
* Joe Thornton, center for the San Jose Sharks of the NHL
In television
* Joe Barbera, American animator and founder of Hanna-Barbera.
* Joe Menosky, the Star Trek writer credited with starting the trend of working
the number 47 into every script
* Joe Piscopo, American comedian known for his work on Saturday Night Live
* Joe Swanson, a recurring character in Family Guy
* Joe Dawson is a Watcher on the Highlander TV series.
In movies
* Joe Mantegna, actor
* Joe Pesci, actor
* Joe is the preferred nickname of Thai filmmaker Apichatpong Weerasethakul.
In fiction
* Joe Yabuki, anti-hero protagonist of boxing manga and anime series Ashita no
Joe (Tomorrow's Joe)
* Joe Dredd, star of the British comic strip Judge Dredd
* Joe Higashi, one of the lone wolves from the Fatal Fury and King of Fighters
Saga.
* Joe Kido, one of the main characters in the popular anime Digimon Adventure
Anoher Joe is Joe Worgan who recently expressed his love of Elton John naked by
opening a gallery of naked paintings of him
* Joe Shimamura, who is Cyborg 009, thus making him the title character of
Cyborg 009
In music
* Joe Budden, an American rapper
* Joe Cocker, an English Blues/Rock singer
* Joe Hisaishi, Japanese composer
* Joe Jonas, member of the band Jonas Brothers
* Joe Perry, guitarist for Aerosmith
* Joe Satriani, an American instrumental guitarist
* Joe Strummer, co-founder and lead singer of punk rock band The Clash, and
later, The Mescaleros
* Joe Trohman, lead guitarist of the band Fall Out Boy
In crime
* Joe Adonis, Mobster in New York
In other fields
* Joe Van Holsbeeck, a youth who was murdered by a mugger in a Brussels subway
station
* Joe Sacco, comics journalist born in Malta
Music is an art form consisting of sound and silence. Elements of sound in music
are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated
concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, structure, and the sonic
qualities of timbre and texture.
The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary
according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized
compositions (and their recreation in performance), through improvisational
music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and sub-genres,
although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often
subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally
controversial. Within "the arts", music can be classified as a performing art, a
fine art, or an auditory art form.
Music may also involve generative forms in time through the construction of
patterns and combinations of natural stimuli, principally sound. Music may be
used for artistic or aesthetic, communicative, entertainment, ceremonial or
religious purposes, and by many composers purely as an academic instrument for
study.
History
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History of music
The history of music predates the written word. The development of music among
humans must have taken place against the backdrop of natural sounds such as
birdsong and the sounds other animals use to communicate. Prehistoric music is
the name given to all music produced in preliterate cultures.
Ancient
Ancient music
A range of paleolithic sites have yielded bones in which lateral holes have been
pierced: these are usually identified as flutes , blown at one end like the
Japanese shakuhachi. The earliest written records of musical expression are to
be found in the Sama Veda of India and in 4,000 year old cuneiform from Ur.
Instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed
instruments have been recovered from the Indus valley civilization
archaeological sites. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the
world—references to Indian classical music (marga) can be found in the ancient
scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. The traditional art or court music
of China has a history stretching for more than three thousand years. Music was
an important part of cultural and social life in Ancient Greece: mixed-gender
choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual ceremonies;
musicians and singers had a prominent role in ancient Greek theater; music was
part of children's basic education.
Al-Farabi (c. 872 - c. 950) wrote a notable book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi
al-Kabir ("Great Book of Music"). He played and invented a variety of musical
instruments and devised the Arab tone system of pitch organisation, which is
still used in Arabic music.
Medieval and Renaissance Europe
Medieval music and Renaissance music
While musical life in Europe was undoubtedly rich in the early Medieval era, as
attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about music, and other
records, the only European repertory which has survived from before about 800 is
the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman Catholic Church, the central
tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Several schools of liturgical
polyphony flourished in the period after about 1100. Alongside these traditions
of sacred music, a vibrant tradition of secular song developed, exemplified by
the music of the troubadours, trouvères and Minnes?nger.
Much of the surviving music of 14th century Europe is secular. By the middle of
the 15th century, composers and singers used a smooth polyphony for sacred
musical compositions such as the mass, the motet, and the laude, and secular
forms such as the chanson and the madrigal. The introduction of commercial
printing had an immense influence on the dissemination of musical styles.
European Baroque
Baroque music
The first operas, written around 1600 and the rise of contrapuntal music define
the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque era that lasted
until roughly 1750, the year of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach.
German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and
woodwinds, as well as Choirs, pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During
the Baroque period, several major music forms were defined that lasted into
later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the Fugue,
the Invention, the Sonata, and the Concerto.
European Classical
Classical period (music)
The music of the Classical period is characterized by homophonic texture, often
featuring prominent melody with accompaniment. These new melodies tended to be
almost voice-like and singable. The now popular instrumental music was dominated
by further evolution of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period:
the sonata, and the concerto, with the addition of the new form, the symphony.
Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, well known even today, are among
the central figures of the Classical period.
Romantic
Romantic music
Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert were transitional composers, leading
into the Romantic period, with their expansion of existing genres, forms, and
functions of music. In the Romantic period, the emotional and expressive
qualities of music came to take precedence over the orientation towards
technique and tradition. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the
size of the orchestra, and in the role of concerts as part of urban society.
Later Romantic composers created complex and often much longer musical works,
merging and expanding traditional forms that had previously been used
separately. For example, counterpoint, combined with harmonic structures to
create more extended chords with increased use of dissonance and to create
dramatic tension and resolution.
The 20th century
20th century music
The 20th Century saw a revolution in music listening as the radio gained
popularity worldwide and new media and technologies were developed to record,
capture, reproduce and distribute music. The focus of art music in the 20th was
characterized by exploration. Claude Debussy has become well-known and respected
for his orientation towards colors and depictions in his compositional style.
Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all deeply influential
composers in 20th century art music. Jazz evolved and became a significant genre
of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that
century, rock music and rap music did the same.
Performance
Performance is the physical expression of music. Often, a musical work is
performed once its structure and instrumentation are satisfactory to its
creators; however, as it gets performed more and more over time, it can evolve
and change in any number of ways.
A performance can either be rehearsed or improvised. Improvisation is a musical
idea created on the spot (such as a guitar solo or a drum solo), with no prior
premeditation, while rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has
achieved cohesion. Musicians will generally add improvisation to a
well-rehearsed idea to create a unique performance. Many cultures include strong
traditions of solo and performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in
the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong
traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and
performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly
planned and organised performance rituals such as the modern classical concert,
religious processions, music festivals or music competitions.
Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type
of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works. A performer
may be referred to as a musician.
Aural tradition
Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk were originally
preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, or
aurally ("by ear"). When the composer of music is no longer known, this music is
often classified as "traditional". Different musical traditions have different
attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material,
from quite strict, to those which demand improvisation or modification to the
music. History is also passed by ear through song- for example in African
societies.
Ornamentation
Ornament (music)
The detail included explicitly in the music notation varies between genres and
historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through to the
19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge
about performing styles.
For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers
typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However, it was expected that
performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as
trills and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a
general instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without
describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected that the
performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation, and pauses (among
other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style. In the 20th
century, art music notation often became more explicit, and used a range of
markings and annotations to indicate to performers how they should play or sing
the piece.
In popular music and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic
framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers
are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with
specific genres and pieces. For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz tune may
only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz
ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding
ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.
Production
Music production
Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic
pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for
the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their own
pleasure, and they do not attempt to derive their income from music.
Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and
organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues, symphony
orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. As
well, professional musicians work as freelancers, seeking contracts and
engagements in a variety of settings.
Although amateur musicians differ from professional musicians in that amateur
musicians have a non-musical source of income, there are often many links
between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take
lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur
musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles and
orchestras. In some rare cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of
competence, and they are able to perform in professional performance settings.
A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a live
audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded and
distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However,
there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is
recorded and distributed (or broadcast).
Composition
Musical composition
Often we class "composition" as the creation and recording of music via a medium
by which others can interpret it (i.e. paper or sound). Many cultures use at
least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material, or composition, as
held in western classical music. Even when music is notated precisely, there are
still many decisions that a performer has to make. The process of a performer
deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is
termed interpretation.
Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary widely.
Composers and song writers who present their own music are interpreting, just as
much as those who perform the music of others or folk music. The standard body
of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred
to as performance practice, where as interpretation is generally used to mean
either individual choices of a performer, or an aspect of music which is not
clear, and therefore has a "standard" interpretation.
In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is given to
the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic, or
rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the performer in a style
of performing called free improvisation, which is material that is spontaneously
"thought of" (imagined) while being performed, not preconceived. According to
the analysis of Georgiana Costescu, improvised music usually follows stylistic
or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen
material (see precompositional). Composition does not always mean the use of
notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual.
Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical
sounds, examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer programs which
select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called
Aleatoric music, and is associated with such composers as John Cage, Morton
Feldman, and Witold Lutos?awski.
Musical composition is a term that describes the composition of a piece of
music. Methods of composition vary widely from one composer to another, however
in analysing music all forms -- spontaneous, trained, or untrained -- are built
from elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed for repeated
performance or it can be improvised; composed on the spot. The music can be
performed entirely from memory, from a written system of musical notation, or
some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated
by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the
definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised
works like those of free jazz performers and African drummers.
What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling out
its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements can be helpful in
deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of music is
how sounds occur in time, which is referred to as the rhythm of a piece of
music.
When a piece appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to be in
rubato time, an Italian expression that indicates that the tempo of the piece
changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random placement of
random sounds, which occurs in musical montage, occurs within some kind of time,
and thus employs time as a musical element.
Notation
Musical notation
Notation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using
symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music is
notated, along with instructions on how to perform the music. This is referred
to as musical notation, and the study of how to read notation involves music
theory, harmony, the study of performance practice, and in some cases an
understanding of historical performance methods.
Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art music,
the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the
music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for
the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the
standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords,
lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Scores and parts
are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as
jazz "big bands."
In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated
in tablature, which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the
instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was
also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted
instrument.
Notated music is produced as sheet music for the performers to read from. To
perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the musical style
and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or genre.
Improvisation
Musical improvisation
Improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music. Improvisation is often
considered an act of instantaneous composition by composers, where compositional
techniques are employed with or without preparation.
Theory
Music Theory
Music theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music. It often involves
identifying patterns that govern composers' techniques. In a more detailed
sense, music theory (in the western system) also distills and analyzes the
elements of music – rhythm, harmony (harmonic function), melody, structure, and
texture. People who study these properties are known as music theorists.
The field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music
including how it is processed by listeners. Rather than accepting the standard
practices of analyzing, composing, and performing music as a given, much
research in music cognition seeks instead to uncover the mental processes that
underlie these practices. Also, research in the field seeks to uncover
commonalities between the musical traditions of disparate cultures and possible
cognitive "constraints" that limit these musical systems. Questions regarding
musical innateness, and emotional responses to music are also major areas of
research in the field.
It is important to note that deaf people can experience music by feeling the
vibrations in their body, a process which can be enhanced if the individual
holds a resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer
Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even after he had
completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include Evelyn
Glennie, a highly acclaimed percussionist who has been deaf since the age of
twelve, and Chris Buck, a virtuoso violinist who has lost his hearing. This is
relevant as it indicates that music is a deeper cognitive process than
unexamined phrases such as, "pleasing to the ear" would suggest. Much research
in music cognition seeks to uncover these complex mental processes involved in
listening to music, which may seem intuitively simple, yet are vastly intricate
and complex.
Sociology
Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from
being alone to attending a large concert. Musical performances take different
forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North
America, there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a
"high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically
include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era
symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal
concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in
seats.
On the other hand, other types of music such as jazz, blues, soul, and country
are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may be
able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th
century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was widely accepted
as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced "art
music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls.
However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide
between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not
based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music. Rather,
they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomic
standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of
music. For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts
typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a hip-hop concert in an
inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even though the performers,
audience, or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower
socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues, hip-hop, punk,
funk, or ska may be very complex and sophisticated.
When composers introduce styles of music which break with convention, there can
be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture.
Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism,
bebop-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered
non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.
Such themes are examined in the sociology of music. The sociological study of
music, sometimes called sociomusicology, is often pursued in departments of
sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of
ethnomusicology.
Media and technology
Further information: Computer music
The music that composers make can be heard through several media; the most
traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of the musicians.
Live music can also be broadcast over the radio, television or the internet.
Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while others
focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never
played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live, often uses
the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered better
than the actual performance.
As talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded
musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found
themselves out of work. During the 1920s live musical performances by
orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at first-run theaters
With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were
largely eliminated. The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper
advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical
playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an
image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce
No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever"
Since legislation introduced to help protect performers, composers, publishers
and producers, including the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 in the United
States, and the 1979 revised Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and
Artistic Works in the United Kingdom, recordings and live performances have also
become more accessible through computers, devices and internet in a form that is
commonly known as music-on-demand.
In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening to
music, as virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often
communal. In industrialised countries, listening to music through a recorded
form, such as sound recording or watching a music video, became more common than
experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century.
Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a DJ
uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an
instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto
a tape. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play MIDI
music. Audiences can also become performers by participating in Karaoke, an
activity of Japanese origin which centres around a device that plays
voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have
video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow
the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.
The Internet
The advent of the Internet has greatly transformed the experience of music, most
notably through the greatly increased ease with which people can access music
content and the greatly increased choice of accessible music. According to
Anderson, in his book, The Long Tail: Why the future of business is selling less
of more, he proposes that while the previous supply and demand economic model
was based on scarcity, the new Internet model is based on abundance. In contrast
to real life, space on a server costs next to nothing, so a company can afford
to make their whole inventory available. Since almost everything can be put
online, costumers now basically have infinite choice. This breaks the old model
of supply and demand because now there is no reason not to make available
products that very few people are interested in. And thus, there is now a trend
of consumers' increasing consciousness of choice resulting in a closer
association between choice of listening and identity as well as the creation of
thousands of niches.
Another effect the Internet has had on music comes from online communities like
Youtube and Myspace. Myspace has made social networking with other musicians
much easier and greatly facilitates distribution of one's music. Youtube is
another forum that has a large community of both amateur and professional
musicians participating in posting videos and commenting. Professional musicians
are also using Youtube as free promotional publishing.
Viewed differently, Youtube users are no longer content to just consume content,
like downloading and listening to mp3's, but are now actively creating their own
content. According to Tapscott and Williams, there has been a shift from a
traditional consumer role to a “prosumer” role, a consumer who creates value and
well as consumes it. Manifestations of this in music are the production of
mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans.
Business
Music industry
The music industry refers to the business industry connected with the creation
and sale of music. It consists of record companies, labels and publishers that
distribute recorded music products internationally and that often control the
rights to those products. Some music labels are "independent," while others are
subsidiaries of larger corporate entities or international media groups.
Education
Primary
Music education
The incorporation of music training from preschool to post secondary education
is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in music is thought to teach
basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening, and cooperation while
also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall
information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other
areas. In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as
the recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art
music. In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some
type of musical ensembles, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, jazz
bands, or orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be
available. Some students also take private music lessons with a teacher. Amateur
musicians typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to
intermediate-level musical techniques.
At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can
receive credit for taking music courses, which typically take the form of an
overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that
focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In
addition, most North American and European universities have some type of
musical ensembles that non-music students are able to participate in, such as
choirs, marching bands, or orchestras. The study of Western art music is
increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as STSI in Bali,
or the Classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as
South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and
colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures,
such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music).
Academia
Musicology
Musicology is the study of the subject of music. The earliest definitions
defined three sub-disciplines: systematic musicology, historical musicology, and
comparative musicology. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to
encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and
ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by
cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study
of music of non-western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called
ethnomusicology.
Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in music
graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the Master of Music, the Master of
Arts, the PhD (e.g., in musicology or music theory), and more recently, the
Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA. The Master of Music degree, which takes one to
two years to complete, is typically awarded to students studying the performance
of an instrument, education, voice or composition. The Master of Arts degree,
which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a thesis, is
typically awarded to students studying musicology, music history, or music
theory. Undergraduate university degrees in music, including the Bachelor of
Music, the Bachelor of Music Education, and the Bachelor of Arts (with a major
in music) typically take three to five years to complete. These degrees provide
students with a grounding in music theory and music history, and many students
also study an instrument or learn singing technique as part of their program.
The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as university
professors in musicology, music history, or music theory, takes three to five
years of study after the Master's degree, during which time the student will
complete advanced courses and undertake research for a dissertation. The Doctor
of Musical Arts (DMA) is a relatively new degree that was created to provide a
credential for professional performers or composers that want to work as
university professors in musical performance or composition. The DMA takes three
to five years after a Master's degree, and includes advanced courses, projects,
and performances. In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the
Quadrivium of the seven Liberal Arts and considered vital to higher learning.
Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more accurately harmonics, was the
study of rational proportions.
Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical
aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked,
"do animals have music?" Fran?ois-Bernard Mache's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les
Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of
Ruwet's Language, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis,
shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation
principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that "in the last analysis, it is
a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not
of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and
conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the
mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human."
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner
outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music,
usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include
mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in
beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the
common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even that which studies music of
the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the
application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music.
Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music theory, is devoted to
the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems,
generally as preparation for composition.
Ethnomusicology
Ethnomusicology
In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western
civilization's art music. The history of music in other cultures ("world music"
or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western universities. This
includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the
influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of various
other cultures.
Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from period
to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments, or techniques,
or uses for music. Music has been used not only for entertainment, for
ceremonies, and for practical and artistic communication, but also for
propaganda in totalitarian countries.
There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up in the
argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the
division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or
commercial music - including rock and roll, country music, and pop music). Some
genres don't fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as
folk music, world music, or jazz music).
As world cultures have come into greater contact, their indigenous musical
styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States
bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and
African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United
States' multi-ethnic society. Genres of music are determined as much by
tradition and presentation as by the actual music. While most classical music is
acoustic and meant to be performed by individuals or groups, many works
described as "classical" include samples or tape, or are mechanical.[original
research?] Some works, like Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both
jazz and classical music. Many current music festivals celebrate a particular
musical genre.
Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of
music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as
internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly 3 forms of
Classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles. It has also a large
repertoire of styles, which involve only Percussion music such as the Tala-vadya
performances famous in South India.
Music therapy
Music therapy
Robert Burton wrote in the 17th century in his work, The Anatomy of Melancholy,
that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially
melancholia. He said that "But to leave all declamatory speeches in praise of
divine music, I will confine myself to my proper subject: besides that excellent
power it hath to expel many other diseases, it is a sovereign remedy against
despair and melancholy, and will drive away the devil himself." Burton noted
that "...Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, in Philostratus, when Apollonius was
inquisitive to know what he could do with his pipe, told him, "That he would
make a melancholy man merry, and him that was merry much merrier than before, a
lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout."
In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues also found that
music therapy helped schizophrenic patients. In the Ottoman Empire, mental
illnesses were treated with music
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With the rising popularity of
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Ultima Online was one of the first
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